Chapter 3

Water

The need for an adequate supply of purified water is second only to the need for air. In the event of natural or man made disasters, more civilians eventually perish from the effects of bad water than from the direct effects of the disaster itself. This is due to disaster-related breakdowns of municipal water and sewer systems that result in polluted surface water and poor sanitation. Civilians are forced out of necessity into drinking contaminated surface water. In serious disasters, people are taking a great risk when they drink surface water.

Municipal sewer and water treatment plants are dependent on electrical power and their processes are controlled by microprocessors. Y2K could produce serious shortages of drinkable water and poor sanitation due to nonfunctional sewer systems.

In the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, which hit Honduras in November of 1998, the municipal water systems were knocked out and drinkable water was in short supply. Hospitals no longer had running water and sanitary conditions were so bad that doctors canceled all but urgent surgeries. The rivers were contaminated with corpses and chemical pollution, and people who bathed or washed clothes in the river started getting skin infections. Doctors in Honduras were concerned about the potential of cholera, dengue fever and gastroenteritis epidemics due to people drinking the polluted surface water.

Even without a disaster, municipal water systems can become contaminated. Most municipal water systems normally contain small quantities of bacteria, Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Usually, humans are not affected by small quantities of these bacteria. Rivers and lakes provide the source of water for water treatment plants in most of the major cities. Consequently, from time to time, water with higher concentrations of human or animal waste finds its way into municipal water treatment plants. Filtration and chlorine will not remove or kill these higher concentrations of bacteria.

What makes the problem worse is that over time, Giardia is becoming more and more resistant to chlorine, and Crypto sporidium is completely resistant. The only way a public water treatment facility can tell if they are having a Giardia or Cryptosporidium problem is when the people drinking the water start getting sick. At this point, the municipal water treatment plant issues a boil water directive. In 1993, an outbreak of cryptosporidium cyst in the Milwaukee, Wisconsin city water system forced 4,000 people to seek medical attention and resulted in 100 deaths. Since 1965, municipal water systems here in the U.S. have experienced over 80 outbreaks of Giardiasis affecting more than 20,000 people. This also occurred in Sydney, Australia where 3 million people were affected. Consequently, the public’s concern is reflected in the fact that the use of bottled water has been increasing at a rate of 25% annually.

Having the equipment and know-how to purify surface water would be essential in the event of a disaster. A person can live about 40 days without food, but only three days without water. A person can lose all reserve carbohydrate and fat, and about 50 percent of the body’s protein without being in real danger. A loss of only 10 to 22 percent body weight as water can be fatal. The amount of water lost from the body through urine, water vapor from the lungs, and through perspiration averages 2.5 quarts per day.

The effects of dehydration are potentially serious. The progression of dehydration symptoms include thirst, sleepiness, apathy, nausea, emotional instability, labored breathing, dizziness, delirium—and finally death. Infants, children, the elderly and physically ill persons are particularly susceptible to dehydration.

Minimum Daily Water Intake (information covered in book)

Water Purification and Filtration (information covered in book)

Boiling for Purification (information covered in book)

Chemical Purification (information covered in book)

Liquid Chlorine (information covered in book)

Iodine (information covered in book)

Iodine Tablets

The tablet form of iodine is called tetraglycine hydroperiodide. One brand name for tetraglycine hydroperiodide tablets is "Potable Aqua" and can be purchased at sporting goods stores. Another product variation "Potable Aqua Plus," comes with ascorbic acid neutralizing tablets that removes the iodine taste out of the water. Iodine water purification tablets have a shelf life of 2+ years as long as they are kept dry. Iodine water purification tablets are available through Yellowstone River Trading (800) 585-5077.

Colloidal Silver(information covered in book)

Activated Carbon

Activated carbon filter systems (ACF), work by passing water through treated carbon. Chemicals, sand and particles in the water stick to the surface of the treated carbon. ACF is the most common type of water treatment. ACF is effective against some chemicals including pesticides, solvents and chlorine, but does not remove heavy metals. In a shelter application, activated carbon filters should not remain wet or filled with water for extended periods of time. When not in constant use, filters become incubators for bacteria. Also, once a filter becomes saturated with pollutants, it will allow additional pollutants in the water to pass through the filter.

Hand-Powered Portable Activated Carbon Water Filters

When selecting an activated carbon filter, a two-stage filter system with 0.1 to 0.3 micron filtering capacity is adequate. The first filter is a pre-filter that removes suspended particles, sand, rust and solids. The second filter removes the bacteria. There are many different brands of portable filters available. Water is forced through a filter made of porous material. This porous material has "pores" that only allow particles of equal or smaller size to pass through. The filter media filters out organisms that are bigger than their pore size, like parasites, Giardia, amoebas, cryptosporidia, organic material, etc. Many filters have pore sizes small enough to filter out bacteria. The larger pore sized filters may be fine for use in mountain streams where Giardia is the primary concern, but are not safe for treating water that may have bacterial contamination (for instance from sewage).

The pore size of portable hand operated filters is not small enough to filter out viruses. In general, viruses do not exist by themselves in water. They are usually found in clusters around organic material. Most filters do a good job of removing organic material and consequently, most viruses. Some other water filter manufactures make a filter that is impregnated with an iodine resin. The idea here is that the silver-coated elements kill viruses as they pass through the filter and deter bacterial growth on the filter element. The only problem with this theory is that under normal field conditions, water is pumped through the filter too fast to be sterilized by the iodine resin. Thus some filter manufactures such as MSR have decided against making a silver resin coated filter element because it gives the illusion of protection. The best solution is to pre-treat water with iodine for 20 to 30 minutes and then filter the water. A filter with a carbon element will remove chemicals including iodine from the water.

Filters with smaller filter pore sizes take out smaller contaminates and produce cleaner water, but they also become clogged sooner. If the water is very dirty, pre-filter the water with a coarse filter, like coffee filter paper, before running the water through the portable water filter.

There are a good number of water filter manufactures. These include PUR, Katadyn, First-Need, Mountain Safety Research (MSR) and Sweetwater. Katadyn is imported from Switzerland and it has the biggest name recognition. Katadyn also costs the most, (about twice as much as a comparable MSR unit). The MSR WaterWorks is made in the U.S. It filters down to 0.2 microns. The Katadyn unit filters down to 0.2 microns. Katadyn claims the maximum gallons of water filtered but field tests suggest exagerated claims. The Sweetwater Guardian filters down to 0.2 microns and it has an optional iodine resin cartridge. The First Need Deluxe filters down to 0.4 microns. The PUR Hiker filters down to 0.5 microns. The PUR Explorer / Scout and Traveler models all filter down to 1.0 micron and they also have the iodine resin option.

After doing considerable research on water filters, we decided to carry the MSR water filters at Yellowstone River Trading. MSR makes two models: the MSR Water Works II and the MiniWorks. Both have a ceramic filter with an activated carbon core that can be cleaned and reused up to 40 times. The WaterWorks II comes with the special PES Membrane. The use of the PES Membrane on the WaterWorks II increases pollutant removal down to .2 micron in size, ensures the removal of narrow profile leptospirosix bacteria and produces pharmaceutical grade water. The U.S. Marines selected the MSR MiniWorks (filters down to .3 microns) for its amphibious operations and reconnaissance missions.

One MSR filter will produce 100 to 1,000 gallons of purified water depending on the concentration of pollutants in the untreated water. The MSR filter will remove disease-causing bacterial microorganisms and chemicals out of water. These units are available through Yellowstone River Trading, (800) 585-5077.

Purification Cups and Straws (information covered in book)

Gravity Operated Activated Carbon Water Filters

These filter systems are a good household Y2K solution, but they are not a portable unit. These units are very convenient in that they do not need water pressure to function. The unit gets set on a counter, the untreated water is poured in the top and it utilizes gravity to drain the water down through the
filter. These units are available through Yellowstone River Trading, (800) 585-5077.

Reverse Osmosis (information covered in book)

Ultraviolet (information covered in book)

Other Sources of Pure Water (information covered in book)

Wells (information covered in book)

Hand Powered Well Pumps (information covered in book)

Rainwater (information covered in book)

Solar Still (information covered in book)

Tips for Shelter Water Systems (information covered in book)

Storing Your Water (information covered in book)

Freezing (information covered in book)

Bacterial Growth (information covered in book)

Storage Space (information covered in book)

Shelf Life of Water

The shelf life of water is difficult to determine. It depends on numerous factors including the original quality of the water, the temperature at which it is stored, and how much light it is exposed to. Inspect your water supply at least every six months. Check for changes in appearance, taste and odor as well as any leakage in the containers. Manufactured bottled water often has a shelf life date that can be checked. Label and date your water just as you would your food.

Under emergency conditions, if water simply tastes flat, it can be aerated by pouring the water back and forth from one container to another about three or four times.

You can increase the shelf life of your water by storing it out of the light. Containers can be covered with dark plastic bags or a tarp. It should also be stored away from gasoline, kerosene, paint, pesticides or chemicals. Fumes from these substances can penetrate any plastic container, plastic being permeable, and contaminate your water.

Types of Water Containers

Like food, water should be stored in food-grade containers and in a cool, dark area. Food-grade plastic containers are available in 5, 15, 30 and 55-gallon sizes. Plastic water tanks and concrete water cisterns are available for large volume water storage. Used containers present the risk that your water will taste like whatever was stored in the container previously. If you decide to go with used containers, clean them first. You can use a solution of 1/8-teaspoon chlorine bleach mixed with a gallon of hot water. Do not use soap. After using the bleach solution, rinse the container thoroughly with plain water.

Glass jugs and bottles will not retain odors, if cleaned thoroughly, but have the disadvantage of being breakable and much heavier.

Mylar water bags are metalized plastic bags that look like aluminum foil on the outside. They hold 5 gallons of water, have a built in plastic spout and fit into a cardboard box sold with the bag. The boxes can be stacked, but no more than three high. Other plastic bags could also be used, but make sure they are food-grade plastic. Most other bags are treated with insecticides and pesticides.

Plastic barrels and drums are also made to hold and dispense water and some are made to withstand outdoor freezing temperatures. Otherwise, barrels cannot be filled all the way. Leave room for the water to expand if it freezes.

Additional Water Sources

In emergency situations, all sources of water may need to be considered. Remember that a source of water is only as good as the water is pure. Make sure that any source of water you use is made safe to drink.

Hot Water Heater (information covered in book)

Water Remaining in the Pipes (information covered in book)

Water in the Toilet Flush Tank (not the bowl) (information covered in book)

Water in the Swimming Pool (information covered in book)

Water Beds (information covered in book)

Effects of Radiation on Water

Ground water would be unaffected by radioactive fallout as long as the well casing was not open at the top, allowing contaminants to get into the water source. Eighteen inches of earth will filter all radioactive dust particles out of rain and surface water penetrating into the ground. If stored water is enclosed in sealed containers, any fallout that has settled on the container can be cleaned off before opening. The water in any such container can be safely drunk.

If water is exposed to radioactive fallout, it does not necessarily make the water itself radioactive. Even if the container is open and has been contaminated with radioactive fallout dust particles, the water can be filtered and safely used. The fallout does not contaminate the water chemically, but only through the presence of particulate material which can be removed by filtering. Any material capable of filtering out dust particles such as milk filters, multiple layers of paper towels or layers of cloth from a bed sheet, will work as an expedient water filter. A conventional water filter or purification system is obviously the best instrument to use.